So I spoke, and the goddess answered my question thus, and while she spoke, her lips breathed vernal roses: “I who now am called Flora was formerly Chloris: a Greek letter of my name is corrupted in the Latin speech. Chloris I was, a nymph of the happy fields where, as you have heard, dwelt fortunate men of old. Modesty shrinks from describing my figure; but it procured the hand of a god for my mother’s daughter. ‘Twas spring, and I was roaming; Zephyr caught sight of me: I retired; he pursued and I fled; but he was the stronger, and Boreas had given his brother full right of rape by daring to carry off the prize from the house of Erechtheus. However, he made amends for his violence by giving me the name of bride, and in my marriage-bed I have naught to complain of. I enjoy perpetual spring; most buxom is the year ever; ever the tree is clothed with leaves, the ground with pasture. In the fields that are my dower, I have a fruitful garden, fanned by the breeze and watered by a spring of running water. This garden my husband filled with noble flowers and said, ‘Goddess, be queen of flowers.’ Oft did I wish to count the colours in the beds, but could not; the number was past counting. Soon as the dewy rime is shaken from the leaves, and the varied foliage is warmed by the sunbeams, the Hours assemble, clad in dappled weeds, and cull my gifts in light baskets. Straightway the Graces draw near, and twine garlands and wreaths to bind their heavenly hair. I was the first to scatter new seeds among the countless peoples; till then the earth had been of but one colour. I was the first to make a flower out of Therapnaean blood, and on its petals the lament remains inscribed. Thou, too, Narcissus, hast a name in the trim gardens, unhappy thou in that thou hadst not a double of thyself. What need to tell of Crocus, and Attis, and the son of Cinyras, whose wounds by my art doth beauty spring? (OVID, Fasti 5, 193)
In the maze of studying and reconstructing ancient festivals, Floralia stands out as a vibrant memory, that highlights the mysteries of growth, renewal, and the fecundity of the Earth under the auspices of the beguiling goddess Flora. This ancient Graeco-Roman festival blossomed with the laughter of Flora herself, a deity who once roamed the Elysian fields as Chloris, to then be reborn through divine union and mystical transformation into the goddess of spring and flowers. This sacred celebration, steeped in the petals of mysticism and the verdant allure of renewal, was not only a testament to the awakened beauty of the Earth but also a rite of passage from the depth of winter into the abundance of spring. The Florifertum, the sacred rite of offering the first fruits and flowers to the goddess, was a profound symbol of the symbiosis between the divine and the mortal, an act of reverence and supplication for the goddess’s blessings of fertility and protection.
For modern magicians and witches, the echoes of Floralia offer a rich wellspring of spiritual insight and a unique opportunity to align with the rhythms of the Earth through a revival of these primordial rites. By integrating a new rite inspired by the Floralia into our yearly calendar, we can tap into the ancient currents of power that celebrate life, growth, and the eternal cycle of renewal. In doing so, we not only honor the legacy of Flora and the ancient practices of those who once danced under the canopy of an Earth reborn but also weave our own modern magick into the perennial golden thread of existence.
How, then, can we, as seekers of the old ways and practitioners of the craft, draw upon the mystical essence of Floralia to enrich our spiritual practices and connect with the deeper mysteries of Nature and renewal?
The Goddess Flora: Patron of Flowers and Spring
Flora, having obtained great wealth by this practice [harlotry], made the people her heir, and left a fixed sum of money, from the annual proceeds of which her birthday might be celebrated by public games, which they called Floralia. And because this appeared disgraceful to the senate, in order that a kind of dignity might be given to a shameful matter, they resolved that an argument should be taken from the name itself. They pretended that she was the goddess who presides over flowers, and that she must be appeased, that the crops, together with the trees or vines, might produce a good and abundant blossom. The poet [Ovid] followed up this idea in his Fasti, and related that there was a nymph, by no means obscure, who was called Chloris, and that, on her marriage with Zephyrus, she received from her husband as a wedding gift the control over all flowers. These things are spoken with propriety, but to believe them is unbecoming and shameful. And when the truth is in question, ought disguises of this kind to deceive us? Those games, therefore, are celebrated with all wantonness, as is suitable to the memory of a harlot. For besides licentiousness of words, in which all lewdness is poured forth, women are also stripped of their garments at the demand of the people, and then perform the office of mimeplayers, and are detained in the sight of the people with indecent gestures, even to the satiating of unchaste eyes.”
Divinæ Institutiones (I.20)
In the realm where myth and history intertwine, Flora emerges as a deity whose essence is as ancient as the bloom of the first spring flower. Before her ascension, she was known as Chloris, a nymph whose beauty was as pure and untouched as the dewdrop on a petal at dawn. Chloris, whose name whispered of greenery and growth, walked the Elysian Fields with grace, her every step nurturing life across the barren landscapes. Her transformation into Flora marked not merely a change of name but a profound elevation of her divine role, transitioning from the guardian of greenwood to the fecund goddess of flowers, spring, youth, and fertility. Her emergence as a deity was a testament to the power of growth and renewal that she wielded in her gentle hands.
The transition from nymph to goddess in the ancient world was a rarity, reserved for those who, through acts of myth or magic, transcended their initial nature to touch the divine or were graced by the gods as recompense for their suffering. Nymphs, daimons, and deities formed a complex spiritual ecosystem in Graeco-Roman beliefs, each playing distinct roles in the mythos and rituals that shaped everyday life. Yet, Chloris’ evolution into Flora underscored a pivotal difference between her and her peers. Unlike the ephemeral nymphs, she gained clout, a testament to her unique connection to life’s endless renewal, securing her place in the pantheon as a goddess of fertility. This ascension from nymph to goddess symbolizes the cycle of life, death, and rebirth, reinforcing the belief in the regenerative power of nature and divine.
The cult of Flora, unlike other deities, spanned across the Italic peoples, demonstrating her widespread veneration. Her name, rooted deeply in the language and culture of ancient Rome, carries the essence of blooming – a direct lineage to the Proto-Italic *flōs, meaning flower. Through her, the cycle of life continued, marked by the blossoming of flora under her care. The Oscan goddess Fluusa mirrored her influence, showcasing Flora’s significance beyond the Roman borders, tying her worship to the very fabric of Italic spirituality. Her festivals and the Floralia games underscored her importance, a celebration of life and the fertility of the earth that bore her name.
Flora’s mythology intertwines with that of her Greek counterpart, Chloris, and the broader scope of Graeco-Roman deities, including Venus and Aphrodite. This synthesis of myths not only highlights the fluidity of divine figures across cultures but also emphasizes Flora’s role in the cycle of life, love, and beauty. Her mythic connection to Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, further amplifies the intricate relationship between the flourishing of nature and the human heart. The stories of Flora and Chloris, intertwined as they are with themes of transformation, renewal, and beauty, continue to resonate, illustrating the eternal dance of life and the divine.
In her divine wisdom, Flora bestowed upon the earth the eternal promise of spring, her legacy enduring in the heart of every blossom. She, who was once Chloris, traversed the path from nymph to goddess, her essence forever enshrined in the petals of every flower that dares to dream of the sun. Her festivals, a testament to the human yearning for renewal and beauty, echo her laughter and joy, a reminder of the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
Whispers of Chloris, in the spring’s soft breath,
From nymph to goddess, transcending death.
Her touch, a palette of life’s renew,
In every petal, her essence anew.
Flora, the eternal, in bloom forever,
In each bud’s opening, her endeavor.
Goddess of spring, of life, our ode,
In your blossoms, our stories unfold.
To Flora, in her eternal bloom. Frater O.D.
Temple of Flora: A Sacred Space for Worship
Within the heart of ancient Rome, the Temple of Flora stood as a sacred beacon, its foundations rooted in divine consultation with the Sibylline Books during a period shadowed by drought. The Sibylline Books, cloaked in the mystique of ancient wisdom, were a collection of oracular utterances held in utmost veneration by the Romans. These divine scrolls, supposedly offered to an ancient king by the Cumaean Sibyl herself, contained prophecies and rituals crucial for the Republic’s survival and prosperity. Enshrouded in secrecy, they were consulted only under dire circumstances, guiding the hands of leaders through the whispers of the gods. Entrusted to the care of a dedicated priestly college, the Quindecimviri sacris faciundis, these texts bridged mortal realms with the divine, guiding Rome through its trials with the ethereal wisdom of the ancients.
Erected between 241 and 238 BCE, this temple was not merely an architectural marvel but a symbol of hope and renewal for the citizens of Rome. Situated on the lower slopes of the Aventine Hill, near the bustling Circus Maximus, it occupied a space that resonated with the plebeians’ spirit. This location, steeped in the rich tapestry of Rome’s social fabric, became a center for the Floralia celebrations — an exuberant festival that welcomed the rejuvenating energies of spring.
The temple itself, dedicated under divine guidance, served as a poignant reminder of humanity’s enduring connection with the cycles of nature, mirroring Flora’s eternal guardianship over, growth and fertility.
Another shrine to Flora’s essence, the Temple of Flora Rustica, found its home on the serene Quirinal Hill, further embedding her presence within the urban landscape of Rome. Unlike its Aventine counterpart, this temple celebrated the rustic aspects of Flora, perhaps evoking a deeper, more ancient connection to the earth and its cycles. This duality of urban and rustic worship sites illustrates the comprehensive nature of Flora’s divine influence, from the heart of Rome’s frenetic city life to the tranquil pastoral realms. It’s speculated that an altar erected by Tatius, a figure shrouded in the mists of Rome’s mythic past, might have marked the site, symbolizing a bridge between Rome’s foundational lore and its spiritual present.
Through these temples, the veneration of Flora encapsulated a broad spectrum of societal and cultural values, from fertility and renewal to the deeply rooted agrarian traditions that predated even Rome’s mighty walls, inviting all to partake in the divine dance of life’s continual rebirth.
Games of the Floralia (Ludi Florae): Celebration and Revelry
It was celebrated annually with games (ludi Florales) from April 28 until May 3. These farces and mimes, which received official recognition, were known for their licentiousness. The prostitutes of Rome, who regarded the day as their own, performed naked in the theater and, suggests Juvenal (Satire VI)
Beneath the azure canopy of spring’s awakening, the Games of the Floralia, or Ludi Florae, unfolded with a spectacle of mirth and revelry, a testament to the festival’s plebeian roots. These celebrations, cast in the heart of Rome, offered a stark contrast to the patrician-dominated festivals, making space for the common folk to immerse themselves in joy and laughter. It was a time when the city’s constraints loosened, and the air filled with the spirit of freedom and festivity. The festival commenced with the ludi scaenici, theatrical performances that wove together the rich Roman drama, mythology, and satire, only to culminate in a vibrant clash of competitive events and spectacles within the grandeur of the Circus. In a remarkable display of ingenuity and wonder, the Floralia of AD 68 saw a tightrope-walking elephant, a performance orchestrated under Emperor Galba, melding awe with the sacred festivities.
In the verdant embrace of Flora’s month, the thresholds between the sacred and the profane blurred, as prostitutes, those venerable daughters of the night, stepped into the daylight as honored participants of the Floralia. The festival, intertwining with the wine-drenched revelries of Vinalia, adopted a libertine essence, where societal scripts were inverted, and freedom of expression reigned supreme. According to the pointed quill of Juvenal, these women, unbound and undisguised, danced with abandon and engaged in mock gladiatorial combats, an embodiment of Flora’s unfettered spirit.
This celebration, extending from April 28 until May 3, or sometimes over a period of 30 days during the festival called Mauima in honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was a time when the city of Rome, draped in the lasciviousness and licentiousness of farces and mimes, embraced the paradox of honoring virtue through the celebration of vice. Their performances, sanctioned by official recognition, revealed a nuanced understanding of human nature, acknowledging the sacredness ingrained in the profane and celebrating the cycle of life and rebirth that Flora herself epitomized.
Licentious Rituals of Floralia
Women fought in the gladiatorial arena. In the Circus Maximus, deer and hares, symbols of fertility, were let loose in honor of the goddess as protector of gardens and fields (but not of woods and wild animals) and, instead of the customary white, colorful garments were worn during the festivities, some of which were celebrated at night (Ovid, Fasti, IV.946, V.189-190, 331ff.)
In the heart of Flora’s revels, the ritual release of hares and goats weaved an enchanting tapestry of fertility and abundance, a profound invocation to the earth’s generative powers. These creatures, emblematic of fecundity and unbridled desire, were set free in a ceremonial gesture that surpassed mere spectacle, becoming a sacred communion with the life forces that Flora herself so lavishly nurtured. This act, veiled in the mystique of ancient rites, was a vivid portrayal of the cycle of life and renewal, an echo of the earth’s eternal rhythms. Meanwhile, the throngs of celebrants, bathed in a shower of vetches, beans, and lupins, found themselves amidst a cascade of fertility symbols, each bean and lupin a bearer of the promise of growth and rejuvenation. It was a moment of profound connection, where the boundaries between the human and the divine blurred, enveloped in the verdure of Flora’s domain.
Amidst the kaleidoscope of colors that marked the Floralia, the customary white garments of Cerealia were cast aside, replaced by a palette of hues as diverse and vibrant as the festival itself. This sartorial rebellion, a flourish of multi-colored fabrics, spoke of the freedom and exuberance that defined the festivities, a visual symphony of joy and liberation under the watchful eyes of the goddess. When the sun dipped below the horizon, transforming the Roman skies into a canvas of twilight, the city did not succumb to darkness; instead, it shimmered with lights and lanterns, prolonging the jubilance into the night. These nocturnal celebrations, illuminated by flickering flames, were not mere extensions of the day but realms of enchantment where the mysteries of Flora and the essence of life itself were celebrated under the cover of darkness, in a dance of shadows and light that bridged the worlds.
The Festival of Maiouma: A later variation of Floralia
In the tapestry of ancient festivity, both the Floralia and the Maiouma emerge as vibrant threads, interwoven with the themes of renewal, fertility, and the celebration of divine archetypes. Where the Floralia enchants the senses with the splendor of flowers and the verdurous homage to Flora, goddess of flowers and spring, the Maiouma dances under the moonlight in honor of Dionysus and Aphrodite, divinities of wine, pleasure, love, and fertility. Both festivals, though distinct in their patron deities, share a profound connection in their celebration of life’s lushness and the breaking of everyday boundaries, inviting a communion with the divine through the ecstasy of unrestrained revelry. The nocturnal dramas of the Maiouma, awash with the mysteries of Dionysus and the allure of Aphrodite, mirror the Floralia’s liberating essence, where the profane and sacred merge in a breathtaking display of life’s infinite cycle.
Comparatively, the uproarious spirit of the Maiouma, with its month-long nights of all-encompassing revels, finds a counterpart in the licentious joy and chromatic exuberance of the Floralia. Both festivals, transcending mere hedonism, served as potent symbols of society’s need to periodically dissolve the rigid confines of order and morality, to celebrate the elemental and the ephemeral in human existence. Despite their divergent pantheonic honors, at their core, both feasts were rites of inversion, where the customary was set aside in favor of a reality governed by the whims of gods and the rhythms of nature. The suppression and subsequent fleeting resurgence of Maiouma’s festivities under Roman rule further elucidate the tension between societal norms and the undying human yearning for periods of unbridled freedom and connection with the divine—a theme that resonates deeply within the Floralia’s own narrative tapestry. Through these celebrations, ancient Rome acknowledged the intricate dance between chaos and order, the sensual and the sacred, encapsulating the enduring human quest for harmony with the cycles of nature and the divine.
The Florifertum Rite: A Mystery Unraveled
In the realm of divine mysteries and ancient rites, the Florifertum stands as a mystery of the cyclical dance of life and the reawakening of the earth under the gentle caress of the Western Winds. This sacred ceremony, of which we know very little, may very well be encoded or entwined with the ethereal strands of Botticelli’s Primavera.
Within the painting unfolds as a mythic tableau vivant, each figure a vital element in the allegory of spring’s arrival. At the heart of this rite, Zephyrus, the herald of spring, emerges on buoyant wings from the realm of winter’s chill, embodying the vivifying breath that awakens the earth. His pursuit of Chloris, who, in her transformation into Flora, exhales a cascade of blossoming flowers, symbolizes the metamorphosis of the bare into the bountiful, a visual ode to the fecundity bestowed by the spring.
The Florifertum rite might well have been a processional embodiment of this metamorphosis. The aspirants, those yearning to tread the sacred path of the Floralis, ventured on a pilgrimage of rebirth, mimicking Zephyrus’s awakening gust, moving through the spaces between the world of men and the divine. They would adorn themselves in robes dappled with the myriad flowers of spring, mirroring Flora’s own garment, becoming living vessels of the earth’s renewal.
Venus, majestic and pregnant with possibility, oversaw this transformation, her blessing a promise of balance and harmony, while above her, Cupid’s arrow, poised in mid-flight, served as a reminder of the fierce and tender love that binds all creation. The Three Graces, linked in an unbreakable chain of unity and beauty, danced the steps of this sacred rite, embodying joy, charisma, and celebration—qualities essential to the heart of a Floralis.
Completing the circle, Mercury, the mediator, faced the tempest with his caduceus raised high, commanding the chaos of change to yield to order. He ensured that the rebirth heralded by the Florifertum was not marred by the storms that so often accompany transformation.
This rite of Florifertum, then, was more than mere ceremony; it was a whispered doctrine, teaching its adherents the delicate balance between change and stability, the essential nature of beauty and love in nurturing growth, and the profound connection between the human and the divine. Through the mysteries of the Florifertum, the aspirants emerged perhaps not just as plebian initiations but perhaps as priests of Flora, guardians of the sacred equilibrium that ensures the eternal renewal of life.
Florifertum Ritual for Invocation and Celebration of Flora
To honor the ancient traditions yet weave them into the fabric of contemporary mystical practices, the following ritual is designed for the modern witch or magician seeking to invoke the spirit of Flora and perform a Floralian Rite. This celebratory rite, known as the Florifertum, is adorned with symbols and imagery of the goddess, aiming to connect practitioners with the essence of growth, fertility, and the joyous freedom emblematic of Flora’s domain.
Step 1: Preparation of Sacred Space
- Begin by cleansing your space with burnt rosemary smoke, invoking purity and protection.
- Cast a circle with vibrant flowers, each petal a testament to Flora’s endless creation, creating a boundary that echoes with her life-giving power.
Step 2: Altar to Flora
- Construct an altar facing East, adorned with symbols of Flora: fresh flowers, vetches, beans, and lupins.
- Place images or handmade clay statues of Flora, alongside candles in hues of green and pink, to capture her vibrancy.
- At the center, lay a bowl of fertile earth, symbolizing the ground’s readiness to receive the blessing of growth.
Step 3: Invocation of Flora
- Standing before the altar, raise your arms, and invoke Flora with a poetic chant, calling upon her essence to infuse the ritual and bless the space with her fecundity and grace.
- “O Flora, goddess of bloom and rebirth, bless this sacred circle with your verdant touch. Awaken the seeds of creativity and desire within, as I honor your legacy of life.”
- Or read from the Hymn to Flora
Step 4: The Florifertum Offering
- Take the wheat ears and gently place them on the bowl of earth on your altar, symbolizing the offering brought forth in the Florifertum rite. This act connects the present with the ancient, sewing seeds of abundance and prosperity.
Step 5: Rite of Pleasure and Fertility
- Engage in a feast of the senses, dining decadently on fruits and foods symbolic of fertility, enjoying their taste as an act of sacred pleasure. Incorporate acts of self-love and pleasure as a form of worship to Flora, celebrating the body as a garden of delight and abundance.
Step 6: Closing the Ritual
- With a heart full of gratitude, thank Flora for her presence and blessings.
- Extinguish the candles, and gently dismantle the circle of flowers, knowing that the ritual acts have sown seeds of spiritual growth and personal rejuvenation in your life.
- Leave an offering of flowers or food outside as a gift to the earth, closing your connection to the ritual and the goddess.
This rite, inspired by ancient traditions and interwoven with the threads of modern mysticism, serves as a bridge between the worlds, invigorating the practitioner’s life with Flora’s enduring vitality and joy.
Floralia in Modern Celebrations
In the dance of time, the essence of Floralia can been seen intricately woven into the fabric of contemporary culture, manifesting in practices that echo the ancient celebration of spring, fertility, and rebirth. The legacy of Floralia, with its deep roots entwined in the worship of Flora, goddess of flowers, growth, and fertility, illuminates the modern world with its ancestral wisdom. Throughout various cultures and regions, we witness the subtle connections of Floralia’s essence in festivals that welcome the spring, celebrate the earth’s fecundity, and honor the cycle of life and renewal. These modern iterations, though perhaps stripped of their explicit ancient namesakes and deities, carry forward the spirit of joy, the celebration of nature’s bounty, and the communal gathering to mark the earth’s awakening from winter’s slumber.
The transition from ancient Floralia to today’s spring festivities serves as a testament to the enduring human need to connect with the cycles of nature and the mysteries of life’s continual renewal. In modern celebrations, one can discern the echoes of past rites in the form of flower festivals, parades, and maypole dances, where the vibrancy of flora is still honored, and the themes of fertility and growth are celebrated. These contemporary practices, whether they are recognized as such or not, stand as modern tributes to the ancient festival of Floralia, carrying forward the legacy of honoring the divine feminine, the power of creation, and the sacred interplay between humanity and the earth. Through these living traditions, the ancient rites of Flora are not only remembered but are reborn, breathing life into the timeless dance between humanity and the natural world.
Conclusion
In the swirling mists of time, Floralia whispers to us, a testament to the Roman reverence for the cycles of growth, fertility, and the vibrant cloak of nature. Its cultural resonance endures, shedding light on ancient values and beliefs that honored the divine interplay between the terrestrial and the celestial. For modern acolytes of Graeco-Roman polytheism, embedding the rites of Flora into the rhythm of the year offers a profound connection to ancestral wisdom, enhancing spiritual practice with the lush, life-affirming energies of Flora.
As we peer into the past, celebrating festivals like Floralia not only enriches our understanding of historical civilizations but also encourages us to weave these threads of ancient reverence for nature and the divine feminine into the tapestry of contemporary life. Hence, Floralia stands not merely as a relic of the past but as a beacon for those seeking to intertwine the beauty of ancient rituals with the essence of modern spiritual journeys, fostering a deeper appreciation for the cycles of life, renewal, and the eternal dance of existence.
References
- FLORA′LIA, or Florales Ludi, a festival which was celebrated at Rome in honour of Flora or Chloris. It was solemnized during five days, beginning on the 28th of April and ending on the 2d of May (Ovid. Fast. V.185; Plin. H. N. XVIII.69). It was said to have been instituted at Rome in 238 B.C., at the command of an oracle in the Sibylline books, for the purpose of obtaining from the goddess the protection of the blossoms (ut omnia bene deflorescerent, Plin. l.c.; cf. Vell. Pat. I.14; Varro, De Re Rust. I.1). Some time after its institution at Rome its celebration was discontinued; but in the consulship of L. Postumius Albinus and M. Popilius Laenas (173 B.C.), it was restored, at the command of the senate, by the aedile C. Servilius (Eckhel, De Num. Vet. V. p308; cf. Ovid, Fast. V.329, &c.), as the blossoms in that year had severely suffered from winds, hail, and rain. The celebration was, as usual, conducted by the aediles (Cic. in Verr. V.14; Val. Max. II.10 sec8; Eckhel, l.c.), and was carried on with excessive merriment, drinking, and lascivious games. (Mart. I.3; p542 Senec. Epist. 96). From Valerius Maximus we learn that theatrical and mimic representations formed a principal part of the various amusements, and that it was customary for the assembled people on this occasion to demand the female actors to appear naked on the stage, and to amuse the multitude with their indecent gestures and dances. This indecency is probably the only ground on which the absurd story of its origin, related by Lactantius (Institut. I.20), is founded. Similar festivals, chiefly in spring and autumn, are in southern countries seasons for rejoicing, and, as it were, called forth by the season of the year itself, without any distinct connection with any particular divinity; they are to this day very popular in Italy (Voss. ad Virg. Georg. II.385), and in ancient times we find them celebrated from the southern to the northern extremity of Italy (see Anthesphoria, and Justin. XLIII.4). The Floralia were originally festivals of the country people, which were afterwards, in Italy as in Greece, introduced into the towns, where they naturally assumed a more dissolute and licentious character, while the country people continued to celebrate them in their old and merry but innocent manner. And it is highly probable that such festivals did not become connected with the worship of any particular deity until a comparatively late period (Buttmann, Mytholog. II. p54). This would account for the late introduction of the Floralia at Rome, as well as for the manner in which we find them celebrated there (see Spanheim, De Praest. et Usu Numism. II. p145, &c.).
- William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.:
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
This article aims to structure a comprehensive exploration of Floralia, blending historical facts with interpretative analysis to engage readers interested in ancient history, mythology, and cultural studies.
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